From Alexander to Rome — age of classical civilization
Alexander dies in Babylon at age 32, leaving his vast empire without a clear heir. His generals, the Diadochi, begin to carve up the territories.
From Alexander to Rome — age of classical civilization
Alexander dies in Babylon at age 32, leaving his vast empire without a clear heir. His generals, the Diadochi, begin to carve up the territories.
Athens and other Greek states revolt against Macedonian rule but are defeated at the Battle of Crannon, ending Greek hopes for independence.
The Diadochi formally divide Alexander's empire, with Antigonus receiving Asia Minor, Ptolemy Egypt, Seleucus Babylon, and Antipater Macedonia.
Seleucus I Nicator recaptures Babylon and establishes the Seleucid Empire, marking the beginning of the Seleucid Era used throughout the Near East.
Cassander murders Alexander IV, the young son of Alexander the Great, along with his mother Roxana, ending the Argead dynasty.
Antigonus I and his son Demetrius I declare themselves kings, followed soon after by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander, formalizing the division into Hellenistic kingdoms.
Antigonus is defeated and killed by a coalition of the other Diadochi. His empire is divided, with Seleucus taking most of Asia and Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor.
Zeno of Citium establishes the Stoic school in Athens, teaching that virtue is sufficient for happiness and that one should live in accordance with nature and reason.
Ptolemy I establishes the Library of Alexandria, which becomes the greatest center of learning in the ancient world, housing up to 700,000 scrolls.
Ptolemy I Soter abdicates in favor of his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who becomes one of the most successful and cultured Hellenistic rulers.
Seleucus I is assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who briefly seizes the Macedonian throne before being killed by invading Gauls.
Large Celtic forces invade Macedonia and Greece, defeating the Macedonian king Ptolemy Ceraunus, who is killed. The Gauls eventually settle in Thrace.
Antiochus I Soter defeats invading Gauls in the 'Elephant Victory', earning his surname 'Savior' and securing the Seleucid Asian territories.
Athens and Sparta, supported by Ptolemaic Egypt, rebel against Macedonian rule. The war ends in Macedonian victory and further loss of Greek independence.
Ptolemy II and Antiochus II fight over control of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. The war ends inconclusively with minor territorial exchanges.
Also known as the Laodicean War, it breaks out over disputed succession in both Egypt and Syria. Ptolemy III invades Syria, reaching Babylon before being forced to withdraw.
After the Third Syrian War, rivalry between Seleucus II and his brother Antiochus Hierax erupts into the War of the Brothers, deepening the empire's fragmentation.
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, librarian at Alexandria, calculates the circumference of Earth with remarkable accuracy using geometry and observations of the sun.
King Cleomenes III seizes sole power at Sparta, abolishes debts, redistributes land and revives the Lycurgan constitution, briefly restoring Spartan ascendancy in the Peloponnese.
Antiochus III the Great becomes Seleucid king and begins ambitious campaigns to restore the empire's former glory, earning his epithet through military successes.
Ptolemy IV Philopator becomes ruler of Egypt. His reign is marked by military victory at Raphia but also by increasing internal decay and religious strife.
The Hellenic League under Philip V of Macedon and the Achaeans goes to war against the Aetolian League, the last major contest among the Greek powers before Roman intervention.
Ptolemy IV defeats Antiochus III near Gaza in the Fourth Syrian War, temporarily securing Egypt's control over Coele-Syria. It's one of the largest Hellenistic battles.
Antiochus III defeats the Ptolemaic forces at Panium and secures Coele-Syria, while the Ptolemaic appeal to Rome signals growing Roman involvement in Hellenistic affairs.
Rome defeats Philip V of Macedon, ending Macedonian dominance in Greece. This victory establishes Rome as the major power in the Greek world.
Antiochus III, invited by the Aetolian League, invades Greece with a small force. This provokes war with Rome, ending Hellenistic independence.
Romans and their allies decisively defeat Antiochus III, forcing him to accept a humiliating peace treaty that severely limits Seleucid power and territory.
Hannibal Barca, refugee at the court of Bithynia, takes poison rather than be surrendered to Rome — the same year that his great adversary Scipio Africanus dies in voluntary exile.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes bans Jewish religious practices, desecrates the Temple, and imposes Hellenizing decrees, triggering the Maccabean Revolt.
Rome defeats Perseus of Macedon, ending the Antigonid dynasty and dissolving the Macedonian kingdom. Greece becomes a Roman protectorate.
Jewish revolt against Seleucid religious persecution begins under Mattathias and his sons. This leads to the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty.
A supposed son of Antiochus IV, Alexander Balas claims the Seleucid throne with Ptolemaic support, leading to further dynastic instability.
Rome destroys Corinth and annexes Greece as the province of Achaea, ending Greek political independence after more than a millennium.
King Attalus III of Pergamon dies without heirs and bequeaths his kingdom to Rome, creating the Roman province of Asia and ending the Attalid dynasty.
Hipparchus of Nicaea compiles the first comprehensive star catalog, discovers precession of the equinoxes, and develops trigonometry, revolutionizing astronomy.
Antiochus VII Sidetes, the last strong Seleucid ruler, is killed fighting the Parthians. The Seleucid Empire collapses into warring factions.
The young Mithridates VI takes the throne of Pontus after the murder of his father, beginning a reign that will fuse Hellenistic and Iranian traditions and challenge Rome itself.
Ptolemy Apion, ruler of Cyrenaica, dies and bequeaths his territory to Rome, further expanding Roman control in North Africa.
Mithridates VI of Pontus invades Asia Minor, sparking the First Mithridatic War against Rome. He orders the massacre of Roman and Italian residents.
Roman dictator Sulla intervenes in Egyptian succession, installing Ptolemy XI Alexander II, who reigns briefly before being murdered by Alexandrians.
Lucullus defeats Tigranes II of Armenia, Mithridates' ally. This victory weakens the anti-Roman coalition in the East.
Pompey the Great captures Jerusalem, ending Hasmonean independence and making Judea a Roman client state. The Seleucid Empire is formally dissolved.
Ptolemy XII Auletes is restored to the Egyptian throne with Roman military support after being overthrown, increasing Roman influence over Egypt.
Cleopatra VII becomes co-ruler with her brother Ptolemy XIII. She will become the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty and one of history's most famous figures.
Julius Caesar follows Pompey to Egypt, where Pompey is murdered. Caesar becomes involved in Egyptian politics and meets Cleopatra.
Caesar defeats Ptolemy XIII's forces in the Battle of the Nile. Cleopatra is restored to the throne with her brother Ptolemy XIV.
Julius Caesar is assassinated in Rome. Cleopatra, who was in Rome with their son Caesarion, returns to Egypt to secure her position.
Octavian's forces defeat Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the naval Battle of Actium. This marks the end of the Hellenistic period and the beginning of Roman domination of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Following defeat at Actium, Mark Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide in Alexandria. Egypt becomes a Roman province, ending the last Hellenistic kingdom.